Forms of Domestic Violence and Development of Women Through Education
· India has world’s largest number of professionally qualified women.
· India has largest population of working women in the world.
· India has more number of doctors, surgeons, scientists, professors than the US.
What is Domestic Violence?
Domestic violence is controlling behaviour and includes all kinds of physical, sexual, economic, psychological and emotional abuse within all kinds of intimate relationships. The perpetrators of domestic violence or abuse are usually men and the victims or survivors are usually women and children that they know. It includes:
• Punching and slapping.
• Kicking and hair pulling.
• Biting and pinching.
• Pushing and shoving.
• Being forced to have ***.
• Being beaten or cut with other objects.
• Disrespect, neglect and emotional blackmail.
• Verbal abuse and swearing.
• Being prevented from going out or seeing people – being isolated.
FORMS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
The following are the forms of Domestic Violence:
1. Physical Abuse
2. Sexual Abuse
3. Psychological Abuse
4. Emotional Abuse
5. Financial Abuse
1. Psysical Abuse:
Physical abuse is the most visible form of abuse and most likely (with sexual abuse) to give rise to criminal charges. Injuries include black eyes, cut lips, bruising, fractures, deafness, blindness, internal bleeding, missing teeth, persistent ill health, miscarriages, and injuries to a foetus and death. Injury sites are often concealed by clothing or hair. It can include slaps, shoves, pushing, being thrown across the room or down the stairs, kicking, stamping, strangulation, burns and scalds, being attacked with weapons such as knives, household objects, firearms etc internally as well as externally.
2. Sexual Abuse:
Sexual Abuse in an abusive relationship is another form of violence, control and degradation. It includes rape, sexual assaults (including with implements),enforced prostitution, enforced sexual practices including being forced to watch or engage in pornography.
3. Psychological Abuse:
Psychological abuse examples include “Jeckyll and Hyde” behaviour, preventing contact with friends and families, constant belittling and humiliating things being said, claims that children will be removed if anyone is told of abuse, controlling behaviours, deliberately enforcing dependency, constant statements that the victim is mentally ill etc.
4. Emotional Abuse:
Emotional abuse is an attack on victims’ personality and well being and is often described as worse than physical violence. It may be referred to as “mind-games”. It frequently amounts to the abuser assuming a tight and unhealthy control of all members of the family, which may become increasingly isolated in the community.
Examples include threats of violence to all members of family, constant criticism of the victim saying she is ugly, ignorant or worthless, using the children as ammunition, family life and mood being dictated by abuser (abuser-centric) continual questioning, humiliation in public, playing on community and cultural fears, threats to have the children removed, threats to kill or have deported, threat that the abuser will commit suicide, threats and actual violence to family pets etc.
5. Financial Abuse:
Financial Abuse is essentially the deprivation of and / or the control of money whether earned or benefits.
An abuser may refuse to pay bills or prevent the victim from having any control over the family finances. The abuser may steal money belonging to the victim or children. Essential services such as gas and electricity may be cut off. The mother may be forced to support the children solely on what she can earn without assistance or child benefit if this is claimed by the abuser. An abuser may deliberately spend money on himself or sell the woman’s possessions and family furniture.
CRIME AGAINST WOMEN IN INDIA
· One crime against women every three minutes
· One **** every 29 minutes
· One dowry death case every 77 minutes
· One case of cruelty by husband and relatives every nine minutes
· Once ******* every 4 hours
Source: National Crime Records Bureau
The main problems of Indian women:
· Malnutrition: India has exceptionally high rates of child malnutrition, because tradition in India requires that women eat last and least throughout their lives, even when pregnant and lactating. Malnourished women give birth to malnourished children, perpetuating the cycle.
· Poor Health: Females receive less health care than males. Many women die in childbirth of easily prevented complications. Working conditions and environmental pollution further impairs women’s health.
· Lack of education: Families are far less likely to educate girls than boys, and far more likely to pull them out of school, either to help out at home or from fear of violence.
· Overwork: Women work longer hours and their work is more arduous than men’s, yet their work is unrecognized. Men report that “women, like children, eat and do nothing.” Technological progress in agriculture has had a negative impact on women.
· Unskilled: In women’s primary employment sector – agriculture – extension services overlook women.
· Mistreatment: In recent years, there has been an alarming rise in atrocities against women in India, in terms of rapes, assaults and dowry-related murders. Fear of violence suppresses the aspirations of all women. Female infanticide and sex-selective abortions are additional forms of violence that reflect the devaluing of females in Indian society.
· Powerlessness: While women are guaranteed equality under the constitution, legal protection has little effect in the face of prevailing patriarchal traditions. Women lack power to decide who they will marry, and are often married off as children. Legal loopholes are used to deny women inheritance rights.
India has a long history of activism for women’s welfare and rights, which has increasingly focused on women’s economic rights. A range of government programs have been launched to increase economic opportunity for women, although there appear to be no existing programs to address the cultural and traditional discrimination against women that leads to her abject conditions.
GOVERNEMNT ROLE TO MINIMIZE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN INDIA
Overall, a crime against women is committed every three minutes in India, according to India’s National Crime Records Bureau. Despite the scale of the problem, there had been no specific legislation to deal with actual abuse or the threat of abuse at home. Domestic violence, under the new law, includes “actual abuse or the threat of abuse whether physical, sexual, emotional or economic,” a statement from the federal ministry of women and child development said.
“We have been trying for long to protect women from domestic violence. In India alone, around 70% of women are victim of these violent acts in one or the other form,” junior minister for women and child development Renuka Chowdhury told the Press Trust of India news agency. They say a bill alone will not help in preventing domestic abuse; what is needed is a change in mind sets.
In January 1992, the National Commission for Women (NCW), was set up as a statutory body under the National Commission for Women Act, 1990 ( Act No. 20 of 1990 of Govt.of India ) to review the constitutional and legal safeguards for women; recommend remedial legislative measures, facilitate redressal of grievances and advise the Government on all policy matters affecting women.
There are so many government and non-government organizations are working for the benefits of women. Both Central and State governments are continuing so many programmes for the development of women in the country.
DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN THROUGH EDUCATION
You can tell the condition of a nation by looking at the status of its women.
- Jawaharlal Nehru
Female Literacy in India:
According to last census held in 2001, the percentage of female literacy in the country is 54.16%. The literacy rate in the country has increased from 18.33% in 1951 to 65.38% as per 2001 census. The female literacy rate has also increased from 8.86% in 1951 to 54.16%. It is noticed that the female literacy rate during the period 1991-2001 increased by 14.87% whereas male literacy rate rose by 11.72%. Hence the female literacy rate actually increased by 3.15% more compared to male literacy rate.
Factors Responsible for Poor Female Literacy Rate:
Historically, a variety of factors have been found to be responsible for poor female literate rate, viz.
· Gender based inequality.
· Social discrimination and economic exploitation.
· Occupation of girl child in domestic chores.
· Low enrolment of girls in schools.
· Low retention rate and high dropout rate.
The main strategies adopted by the Government for increasing female literacy in the country include:
1. National Literacy Mission for imparting functional literacy
2. Universalisation for Elementary Education
3. Non-Formal Education
History of Women’s Education in India: Although in the Vedic period women had access to education in India, they had gradually lost this right. However, in the British period there was revival of interest in women’s education in India. During this period, various socio religious movements led by eminent persons like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar emphasized on women’s education in India. Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Periyar and Baba Saheb Ambedkar were leaders of the lower castes in India who took various initiatives to make education available to the women of India. However women’s education got a fillip after the country got independence in 1947 and the government has taken various measures to provide education to all Indian women. As a result women’s literacy rate has grown over the three decades and the growth of female literacy has in fact been higher than that of male literacy rate. While in 1971 only 22% of Indian women were literate, by the end of 2001 54.16% female were literate. The growth of female literacy rate is 14.87% as compared to 11.72 % of that of male literacy rate.
Importance of Women’s Education in India: Women’s education in India plays a very important role in the overall development of the country. It not only helps in the development of half of the human resources, but in improving the quality of life at home and outside. Educated women not only tend to promote education of their girl children, but also can provide better guidance to all their children. Moreover educated women can also help in the reduction of infant mortality rate and growth of the population.
Obstacles: Gender discrimination still persists in India and lot more needs to be done in the field of women’s education in India. The gap in the male-female literacy rate is just a simple indicator. While the male literary rate is more than 75% according to the 2001 census, the female literacy rate is just 54.16%. Prevailing prejudices, low enrollment of girl child in the schools, engagements of girl children in domestic works and high drop out rate are major obstacles in the path of making all Indian women educated.
According to the Women and Child Development study, 45 percent of Indian women are slapped, kicked or beaten by their husbands. India also had the highest rate of violence during pregnancy. Of the women reporting violence, 50 percent were kicked, beaten or hit when pregnant. About 74.8 percent of the women who reported violence have attempted to commit *******. It shows the importance of education. Educated woman has more strength and power to face the challenges when compared to uneducated woman.
Kumud Sharma of the Centre for Women’s Development Studies in New Delhi traced the correlation between education and domestic violence to patriarchal attitudes. “Educated women are aware of their rights,” she said. “They are no longer willing to follow commands blindly. When they ask questions, it causes conflicts, which, in turn, leads to violence. In many Indian states, working women are asked to hand over their paycheck to the husband and have no control over their finances. So, if they stop doing so or start asserting their right, there is bound to be friction.”
It is necessary to establish some more colleges and universities in India. The number of Residential Schools for SC/ST and BC’s is not sufficient today. So, increase the number of these schools in the both rural and urban areas. Today’s children are tomorrow’s citizens. Take care about future generation. Then only India will become developed country in the future.
CONCLUSIONS
Now we are living in the modern and technological world. Women are also entering in all the fields like men for doing job. Educated women have better opportunity compared to uneducated women in the society. They are facing so many problems in the society. With the help of education and law and order it is easy to escape from those problems. So it is necessary to educate all types of women in the society. Education gives strength, wealth, health and power to the individual.
According to Swami Vivekandanda:
“We want that education by which character is formed, strength of mind increased and intellect is expanded, and by which one can stand on one’s own feet”.
The plight of women in medieval India and at the starting of modern India can be summed up in the words of great poet Rabindranath Tagore:
“O Lord Why has you not given woman the right to conquer her destiny?
Why does she have to wait head bowed,
By the roadside, Waiting with tired patience,
Hoping for a miracle in the morrow?”
References:
1. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2001). The National Reading Panel: Reports of the Subgroups.
2. UNESCO Institute for Statistics: Literacy rates, youth (15-24) and adult (15+), by region and gender (September 2006 Assessment).
3. Child and Women Development Report, (2006), Ministry of Women and Child
Development, Government of India, New Delhi.
4. National Family Health Survey, (2006), Government of India, New Delhi.
5. National Crime Records Bureau, (2007), Government of India, New Delhi.
6. Census of India, (2001), Government of India, New Delhi.
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The Characteristics and Impact of African Traditional Education
INTRODUCTION:
Some European scholars have doubted the authenticity of African traditional education. They assert that before the coming of the Europeans to Africa there was no education in Africa, the culture which is the main tenet of African Traditional Education is often portrayed as primitive and incapable of yielding a tangible framework of theories and philosophy that can guide a reasonable educational practice.
There is a calculated move by modern education that threatens to cause a virtual extinction of the indigenous education in Africa. This threat is of great magnitude, especially when our own youth are persuaded to see no value in African culture and education. As early as 1970’s, a survey study among Kenyan and Tanzanian secondary students revealed that only a small percentage attached value to African education and culture. They absolutely see no need in preserving traditions and customs. (Prewitt, K, 1977).
These findings suggest that many people are still myopic about the characteristics and impact of African traditional education on modern civilization. It may not even be considered as a reliable means for tangible progress and development in Africa and other continents. It is no wonder, every technological and medicinal discoveries in Africa arouses much international debate and final dismissal if not patented by the westerners.
In the voice of Gabriel Kingsley Osei, a distinguished professor of History this state of affairs has to change. The dark ages which relegated the African education and civilization into ignorance and superstition must now receive more light on the authenticity of African traditional education. It must be illuminated enough for people to recognize indigenous African education as one of the most effective and potential means of solving African problems. (Osei, 1968).
It is the intent of the is paper to reveal the characteristics of African traditional education that makes it an authentic educational system and show how it has impacted on world civilization and education, and its potential contribution to development of Africa and the rest of the world. Logical presentation and revelations in this paper should convince the reader of the need to foster the resurgence and adaptation of all that is valid for the 21st century in our indigenous African education. The following questions will be addressed in this paper.
What is the meaning of African traditional education?
What were the aims of African traditional education?
What were the main characteristics of African traditional education?
What was the content of African traditional education?
What were the methodologies used in African traditional education?
Who were the main agents in the African traditional education and how was it organized?
What were the major philosophies guiding the African traditional education?
What is the impact of African traditional education on modern education and civilization?
The Meaning of African Traditional Education:
What is the meaning of African traditional education?
African traditional education refers to ways of teaching and learning in Africa which are based on indigenous knowledge accumulated by Africans over long periods of time in response to their different physical, agricultural, ecological, political and socio-cultural challenges. The indigenous knowledge is an amalgamation of diverse cultural experiences commonly generated by diverse African cultures, and passed as valuable information from generation to generation. (Shiundu, J.S, Omulando, S.J 1992; Fasokun, J. et al, 2005).
The Aims of African Traditional Education
What were the aims of African traditional education?
The general aim of African traditional education was based on the socio-cultural and economic features shared by the various communities. The harsh natural environment made survival to be the main aim of education. Every skill, knowledge or attitude learnt was either for protection, acquiring of food or shelter. (Sifuna, 1994, Datta, 1984).
Other aims were as follows:
§ To create unity and consensus among society members.
§ To perpetuate the cultural heritage of particular ethnic group and to preserve ethnic boundaries.
§ To inculcate feelings of group supremacy and communal living.
§ To prepare the young for adult roles and status.
§
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Womens Higher Education in India
WOMENS EDUCATION
A STUDY OF FACTORS INFLUENCING WOMEN’S ENTRY INTO HIGHER EDUCATION.
INTRODUCTION
Inducement of social change as one of the fundamental functions of education has been spelt out in the report of the Indian Education Commission (1964-66) thus:
“The realization of the country’s aspirations involves changes in the knowledge, skills and values of the people as a whole. If this ‘change in a grand scale’ is to be achieved without a violent revolution there is one and only instrument that can be used – Education”.
EDUCATION :-
Education is the nourishment of the mind with knowledge this is practiced purposefully and productively.
Education disciplines the mind, sharpens the intellect and refines the spirit. It shapes and polishes a rough unknown diamond into a multifaceted kohinoor sparkling with scintillating brilliance. Its the development of integrated personality that unfolds itself to the highest wisdom. Its a continuous process.
The philosopher President Dr.Radhakrishnan (1948) said, “There cannot be educated people without educated women. If general education has to be limited to men or women, that opportunity should be given to women from them it would most surely be passed on to the next generation”.
HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN :-
Higher education is defined as the education attained after the completion of 12 years of schooling. Higher education for women has gained a wider role and responsibility all over the world. Today, in the 21st century, we cannot afford to ignore the importance of higher education for women any longer. The reason for its need and urgency is that there is no biological difference in the systems of males and females. Unfortunately, this important task of higher education of women has remain neglected for centuries. Need for higher education among women assumes all the more importance or the 3rd world countries, where colonialism has remained a great force hindering education for the general masses and for the women in particular.
OBJECTIVES OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN:-
To provide society with competent men and women trained in agriculture, arts, medicine, science and technology and various other professions, who will also be cultivated individuals in built with a sense of social purpose.
To strive to promote equality an social justice and to reduce social and cultural differences through diffusion of education.
NEED FOR HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN : MALE AND FEMALE :-
Higher Education may also be viewed in terms of the needs of its consumers. The term consumer is very wide and heterogeneous. It includes young and old of both sexes. Theoretically the need for Higher Education for both males and females is the same. But its sometime argued that males and females are different in their social and cultural needs.
The basic argument which is given for women Higher Education is not that Higher Education for women is different from that of men. Our main thrust is that in the field of Higher Education, women should also be equal partners. Our past experience shows that so far Higher Education has remained restricted only to men. It should now widen its horizon and include women also. The commission on the Higher Education for women, University of Madras in 1979 rightly observed: “for Women and men college education is necessary for character formation, ability to earn, creative self expression and personal development”.
MAIN FACTORS INFLUENCING WOMEN’S SUCCESS / FAILURE IN COMPLETING HIGHER EDUCATION :-
Success :
a) Women are strongly motivated to succeed in the education stream.
b) The merit basis of the education system permits females to excel.
c) Prejudice against women’s education has been reduced. Higher Education has come to be considered equivalent to a bride’s “dowry”.
d) Women’s universities promote women’s Higher Education.
e) Women’s expectations for education based employment are high.
f) Some Higher Education courses provide scholarship facilities for women.
g) Female students have been provided with residential facilities in some areas.
Failure :
a) Female students have difficulties in access to transport facilities in general.
b) Sexual harassment as well as occasional student violence hinder female students completion of higher education.
c) Marriage in many cases leads to early withdraw.
d) Gender stereotyping inhibits completion of studies.
e) Financial constraints can cause withdrawal from the education stream.
f) Part-time work to earn living interferes with studies.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PRESENT STUDY :-
The objective of the Indian Society as has been laid down in the constitution is to achieve a democratic, socialistic and egalitarian society. In such a society women are supposed to perform their roles at par with men. Their status structurally needs to be equal with men.
Broadly speaking, knowledge which is imparted through Higher Education provides skills to its practitioners. Our understanding is that by acquiring skills the women raise their status in comparison with men and also the status of the group to which they belong.
In order to understand the status of women, or for that matter to understand any social issues, it is necessary to combine at least 3 perspectives viz. the perspective from policy, the perspective from statistics and the perspective from culture.
· The present study is aimed at finding the various reasons for women seeking entry into higher education.
· It aims at looking at the reasons for seeking entry into higher education by women from the perspective of men, teachers, parents and the women themselves.
· It bring about an awareness among women as to the various avenues open to them in Higher Education and thus mark the beginning of a major process of empowering women.
· To find out the problems hindering the pursuit of Higher Education by women.
· Make suggestions for finding solutions to the above problems in a rational and free manner.
· To suggest ways of enhancing women’s entry into colleges, including professional course.
· To explore areas of Higher Education where women have not yet stepped in or are a monopoly of men.
· To suggest suitable measures to make higher education for women universal i.e. free of cost, time and distance effective.
PROMOTING HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN
The social context of educational policy has to be improved.
Family and personal counseling at the secondary education stage can be provided.
Higher education can be made skill oriented.
Nontraditional curricula for women can be established.
Recent declines in state support for non-traditional higher education has to be reversed.
Institutions can be made physically accessible i.e. Locate them near the potential clientele, improve transport system etc.
Higher Education Institutions have to be made more women-friendly i.e. Physical Changes, curricula changes, social changes.
Women’s representation on institutions decision-making bodies can be increased.
Equal opportunity commissions for higher education institutions should be established.
The number of women teachers in co-educational institutions of higher education should be increased.
Stipends, Scholarships and fellowships can be linked to affirmative action programmes.
Women need to be recruited into administrative training programmes for institutions of higher education.
A large role for women’s study centres can be provided.
Institutions of higher education should provide placement services.
Barriers to women’s career entry should be removed, example: employers should be sensitized to the value of flexitime, day-care centres etc.
Sexual harassment in the educational environment should be addressed.
A large number of female secondary education graduates usually are not able to enter university. To accommodate that population it would be benefited to strengthen the role of vocational training institutions. Post secondary vocational training institutions should take action to promote entry of women into vocational training lines traditionally considered male preserves.
Affirmative action quotas has to be provided to promote women’s admission into higher institutions, where such quotas exist, should be reviewed periodically to ensure their continuing relevance.
Where quotas are provides for specific disadvantaged groups like disabled persons, people from remote or rural areas, members of indigenous minorities, a minimum share should be reserved for female members of those groups.
Distance education and open learning institutions and techniques should be promoted, particularly to extend higher education opportunities to women in rural and remote areas, which will take into account their needs.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH :-
The present study is limited only to women students seeking higher education up to undergraduate level in a few professional and non-professional colleges of Chennai city. The following suggestions are given for further investigation.
1. A similar study may be conducted among the postgraduate level or research level students.
2. A similar study may be undertaken throughout Tamil Nadu State.
3. A comparative study of factors influencing entry of women in higher education can be made between a developing and developed country.
4. A similar study may be attempted for various issues relating higher education of women.
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